Учебное пособие Издание второе, переработанное и дополненное Москва Астрель • act 2005 удк 811. 111 (075. 8) Ббк 81. 2 Англ-923 К48 Компьютерный дизайн обложки студии «Дикобраз»
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Gauge theories — градиентные полевые теории, или калибровочные теории поля • Look through the passage and And English equivalents for the following Russian terms and phrases: как построен мир; до недавнего времени; не больше чем; в основном, отвечая зд ...; единым ключ, который подходит ко всем замкам; достаточно заметить; согласно тому же принципу; основные силы природы; слабые/сильные взаимодействия • Answer some more questions about the passage.
• Study the block-scheme below and try to discuss or summarize the problem as a whole. Forces   weakstrong intertwined radioactive beta decay pull/push proton/neutron binding CLASS WORK READING (18B) • Study the table given below. Read the passage and be prepared to discuss the problem using this table.
THE EXCHANGE OF PARTICLES IS RESPONSIBLE FORTHE FORCES THE FOUR FORCES OF NATURE One of the major achievements of modern physics has been the development over the past 20 years or so of a new class of grand unified theories to describe the forces acting between elementary particles. There arc four different ways in which the various particles that make up the Universe can interact with one another. Each of these is a particular variety of interaction, or to use a more old-fashioned but more common term, a force (the forces are nuclear, electromagnetic, weak, gravitational). Of the four forces, two — the nuclear force and the weak force — make themselves felt only at incredibly tiny distances of 1013 centimeters or less. This is just about the width of the tiny nucleus that exists at the very center of the atom. It is only within the nucleus, in the immediate neighbourhood of isolated particles, that these forces exist. For this reason the term nuclear force is sometimes given to both, and they are differentiated by their relative strength into the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force. The weak force is responsible for such processes as the beta decay of a radioactive atomic nucleus; the strong nuclear force holds the nucleus together. The electromagnetic force governs the interaction of electrically charged particles; and gravity holds the Universe together. Until the theories were introduced the four observable forces of nature seemed to be independent of one another. Two of these forces, the electromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force, arc already linked by the highly successful electrowcak theory, which treats them as different manifestations of a single underlying force. According to the prevailing view ofthe interactions of elementary particles, the force is transmitted between two particles by the exchange of a third, intermediary particle. Such a description is the essence of a quantum field theory. In electromagnetic and weak interactions the exchanged particle is a member ofthe family called the vector bosons, named after the Indian physicist S.N. Bose. This term refers to a classification of particles according to one of their most basic properties: spin angular momentum. A boson is a particle whose spin, when measured in fundamental units, is an integer such asO, 1 or 2. "Vector" designates a boson whose spin value is equal to 1. In the case ofelectromagnetism the exchanged vector boson is the photon, the massless and chargeless "wave packet" of electromagnetic energy that functions as the quantum ofthe electromagnetic field. The other two forces — gravity and st rong nuclear force — are thought to be transmitted by intermediary particles, namely the graviton and the eight particles called gluons. The unified eleotroweak theory is the theory that predicts the existence of the three massive particles called intermediate vector bosons (also known as weakens; "intermediate" simply because of their mediating role between particles). The electroweak theory, which can now be considered the "standard" account of electromagnetic and weak interactions, for the first time made specific and testable predictions about the properties of intermediate vector bosons, including their mass. The goal of attempts to create a grand unified theory is to arrive at a more comprehensive mathematical structure that would incorporate both the electroweak force and the strong nuclear force (omitting only gravity, the fourth known force). Scientific American, August, 1982 • Find equivalents for the following phrases. лают о себе знать; различные проявления одной, лежащей в их основе силы; в соответствии с общепринятым мнением; целое число; обычное объяснение электромагнитных...; слабое взаимодействие; сильное взаимодействие; теория великого объединения; ...в непосредственной бл изости... • Re-read the passage and answer the questions.
• Match each word in column I with its synonym in column II. I apparent, to attain, to come about, to designate, familiar, decay, with respect to, ultimately, explicit, to reveal • Choose the proper word. II definite, to name, to show, as regards, finally, evident, to achieve, to happen, disintegration, well-known
HOMEWORK (to be done in writing) 1. Translate into Russian. Pull of Gravity Reveals Unseen Galaxy Cluster Now astronomers are taking long strides into the realm (область) of dark matter. The scientists of Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey have discovered a whole new cluster of galaxies and calculated its distance without relying on its emitted light. Instead they inferred the unseen cluster's existence from the way its gravity rerouted light from more distant galaxies beyond. The research team is one ofscveral to show that the technique, known as gravitational lensing, can be used to map matter in deep space. Astronomers believe that about 90% of mass in the universe is dark. Telescopes can't see it, but its gravitational pull blows its cover. "Gravity doesn't care whether matter is dark or luminous," scientists say. All you need are background sources of light, which arc all over the sky, and, in principle, you can find all the matter between us and the background sources. Science (17 August 2001) 2. Translate into English.
UNIT NINETEEN GRAMMAR: THE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION • Sentences to be translated.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY question п. - вопрос, проблема v. - сомневаться, ставить под вопрос in question — исследуемый, рассматриваемый, о котором идет речь (syn. involved, concerned, in issue, in point) open to question - сомнительный, спорный beyond question — вне сомнения out of the question — не может быть и речи • Sentences to be translated.
144
READING (19A) • Read the passage closely and follow the historical development of elementary particle physics. Interpret the title of the passage. The Smallest of Objects Can Be Perceived Only with the Largest of Instruments The large investment now being made in instruments for high-energy-physics research can be justified only because the preccdinggenerations of accelerators • have already proved their worth. Fifty years ago only two kinds of apparently indivisible particles were recognized: the electron and the proton. The remaining constituent of the atom, the neutron, was discovered in 1932. In subsequent years, through experiments with cosmic rays and with early accelerators, several additional particles were identified. One ofthe first was the positron, the antiparticle ofthe electron. Others were the neutrino, a particle without mass or electric charge, and the muon and the pion, which have masses intermediate between those ofthe electron and the proton. In the 1950's, when more powerful accelerators began operating, there was an unexpected and in some respects alarming proliferation in the number of known particles. Within a few years the list extended to more than 100, most of them classified as hadrons, or nuclear particles. Among the hadrons were several with the new property of mattercalled strangeness. Later, it was necessary to add another class of hadrons, bearing another whimsically (прихотливо) named property, charm. The pace of discovery continued to increase. Particles that apparently signal the existence ofTwo more classes have been observed. These newest classes, which have only begun to be catalogued, are distinguished by properties called truth and beauty or top and bottom. For a time it seemed that all of these particles might have to be accorded equal status as elementary objects. That possibility was deeply troubling, as it was difficult to reconcile with the conviction that the laws of nature should be reasonably simple. It was subsequently discovered, however, that all the hadrons could be arranged in logical patterns, some of which have a lovely snowflake form. Moreover, the existence of such patterns could be understood if it was assumed that the hadrons are not elementary but arc made up ofthe more fundamental entities, that have been given the name quarks. In the view that now prevails among physicists there arc just two kinds of elementary particles: leptons and quarks. Among the leptonsthe most familiar particle is the electron. Also included in that class are the muon and two kinds of neutrino, one associated with the electron and one with muon. A few years ago a new lepton was discovered and given the designation tau. Presumably the tau also has an associated neutrino, so that there should be six leptons altogether. There also appear to be six kinds of quarks, labeled up, down, strange, charmed, top and bottom. (As yet there is no experimental evidence forthe top quark, but because all the other quarks and leptons come in pairs it is assumed that the bottom quark also has a partner.) No one has observed a quark in isolation, but there are substantial reasons for believing in their existence. Every known hadron (and there-arc now a few hundred) can be explained as a combination of quarks or of quarks and antiquarks, formed by explicit rules. • Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases. доказали свою ценность; в последующие годы; в некоторых отношениях; темп открытий; различаются по существу; образованных по явным правилам • Answer the following questions:
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