Учебное пособие для студентов юридических специальностей chapter I law
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Unit 2 What Law IsBefore you read Discuss these questions. 1 What is your understanding of law? 2 What categories of law are known to you? 3 Are laws always sufficient? Give your own examples of perfect and imperfect laws. 4 In your opinion, are laws always fair? Definitions Study the dictionary definitions of LAW. Translate them into Russian. Which of them do you consider the most suitable? 1 All the rules established by authority or custom for regulating the behaviour of members of a community or country. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English 2 The whole system of rules that citizens of a country or place must obey. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Longman Business English Dictionary 3 The regime that orders human activities and relations through systematic application of the force of politically organized society, or through social pressure, backed by force, in such a society; the legal system. Black’s Law Dictionary What Is Law? The English word “law” refers to limits upon various forms of behaviour. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave. An example is the rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent laws of economics. Other laws are prescriptive – they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits imposed upon drivers are laws that prescribe how fast we should drive. They rarely describe how fast we actually do drive, of course. Social Morality, Rules and Laws In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs – that is, informal rules of social and moral behaviour. Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power. It is important to consider to what extent such laws can be distinguished from customs and social rules. Customs need not be made by governments, and they need not be written down. We learn how we are expected to behave in society through the instruction of family and teachers, the advice of friends, and our experiences in dealing with strangers. Sometimes, we can break these rules without suffering any penalty. But if we continually break the rules, or break a very important one, other members of society may ridicule us, criticize us, act violently toward us or refuse to have anything to do with us. The ways in which people talk, eat and drink, work, and relax together are usually guided by many such informal rules which have very little to do with laws created by governments. The rules of social institutions tend to be more formal than customs, carrying precise penalties for those who break them. They are not, however, enforceable by any political authority. Sports clubs, for example, often have detailed rules for their members. But if a member breaks a rule and refuses to accept any punishment, the club may have no power other than to ask him or her to leave the club. However, when governments make laws for their citizens, they use a system of courts backed by the power of the police to enforce these laws. Of course, there may be instances where the law is not enforced against someone - such as when young children commit crimes, when the police have to concentrate on certain crimes and therefore ignore others, or in countries where there is so much political corruption that certain people are able to escape justice by using their money or influence. But the general nature of the law is that it is enforced equally against all members of the nation. Government-made laws are nevertheless often patterned upon informal rules of conduct already existing in society, and relations between people are regulated by a combination of all these rules. Governments often consider anti-social behaviour not simply as a matter between two individuals but as a danger to the well-being and order of society as a whole. What motives do governments have in making and enforcing laws? Social control is undoubtedly one purpose. Public laws establish the authority of the government itself, and civil laws provide a framework for interaction among citizens. Without laws, it is argued, there would be anarchy in society (although anarchists themselves argue that human beings would be able to interact peacefully without laws if there were no governments to interfere in our lives). Another purpose is the implementation of justice. Justice is a concept that most people feel it very important but few are able to define. Sometimes a just decision is simply a decision that most people feel is fair. But will we create a just society by simply observing public opinion? If we are always fair to majorities, we will often be unfair to minorities. If we do what seems to be fair at the moment, we may create unfairness in the future. What should the court decide, for example, when a man kills his wife because she has a painful illness and begs him to help her die? It seems unjust to find him guilty of the crime, yet if we do not, isn’t there a danger that such mercy-killing will become so widespread that abuses will occur? Many philosophers have proposed concepts of justice that are much more theoretical than everyday notions of fairness. And sometimes governments are influenced by philosophers, such as the French revolutionaries who tried to implement Montesquieu’s doctrine of the Separation of Powers. But in general, governments are guided by more practical considerations such as rising crime rates or the lobbying of pressure groups. Sometimes laws are simply an attempt to implement common sense. It is obvious to most people that dangerous driving should be punished; that fathers should provide financial support for their children if they desert their families; that a person should be compensated for losses when someone else breaks an agreement with him or her. But in order to be enforced, common sense needs to be defined by law, and when definitions are being written, it becomes clear that common sense is not such a simple matter. Instead, it is a complex skill based upon long observation of many different people in different situations. Laws based upon common sense don’t necessarily look much like common sense when they have been put into words! In practice, governments are neither institutions solely interested in retaining power, nor clear-thinking bodies implementing justice and common sense. They combine many purposes and inherit many traditions. The laws that they make and enforce, reflect this confusion. The laws made by the government of one country are often very different from the laws of another country. Law today is, to a large extent, a complex of different and relatively independent national systems. Vocabulary abuse n злоупотребление anarchy n анархия argue v утверждать, доказывать, аргументировать, приводить доводы; it is argued утверждается assertion n утверждение clear-thinking adj здравомыслящий commit crime v совершить преступление common sense n здравый смысл concept n понятие confusion n смешение consider v определять, полагать, считать, принимать во внимание, учитывать; consideration n соображение consistent adj последовательный, непротиворечивый defined by law установлено законом descriptive adj описательный desert v оставлять, покидать; бросить (семью) doctrine n доктрина, учение economics n экономика enforce v обеспечивать соблюдение или исполнение, принудительно проводить в жизнь;enforced принудительно примененный, обеспеченный правовой санкцией establish v устанавливать to a large extent в значительной мере framework n система, правовые рамки, пределы, каркас, остов guide v руководить, вести; be guided by руководствоваться implement v провести в жизнь, осуществить implementation n исполнение; implementation of justice отправление правосудия impose v налагать (обязательства), предписывать, устанавливать, возлагать, навязывать inherit v наследовать interaction n взаимодействие justice n правосудие, справедливость law n право, закон law of gravity закон всемирного тяготения lobby (in Parliament) n кулуары, лобби; lobbying агитация в кулуарах, закулисная обработка членов парламента; лоббирование mercy killing n убийство из сострадания, эвтаназия, умерщвление неизлечимых больных minority n меньшинство motive n мотив, повод nation n государство, нация, народ necessarily adv обязательно notion n понятие, представление painful illness болезнь, сопровождающаяся мучительными болями penalty n наказание phenomenon n явление; phenomena n pl явления precise adj точный prescriptive adj предписывающий pressure group n инициативная группа, группа влияния propose v предлагать, выдвигать public laws n публичные законы (касающиеся всех) retain v удерживать, сохранять revolutionary n революционер ridicule v осмеивать rule n норма, правило skill n искусство, умение, ловкость, мастерство; skilled (highly trained) квалифицированный solely adv исключительно, только tend v иметь тенденцию, склоняться well-being n благополучие, благосостояние within their power в пределах их полномочий / власти; в их компетенции Reading tasks A Comprehension check. 1 Give your own example of a descriptive law and a prescriptive law. 2 Mark these statements T (true) or F (false) according to the information in the text. a Social customs and rules are both enforced by governments. b Many laws reflect social customs. c Unlike social customs, laws are usually international. d In all societies relations between people are regulated by customs and traditions. e The speed limits imposed on a driver is an example of a prescriptive law. f In general it is very easy to escape justice. g Both customs and rules are enforced by governments. B Answer these questions. 1 What does the word “law” refer to? 2 What is a descriptive/prescriptive law? 3 What is understood by prescriptive laws in all societies? 4 What is the difference between a custom and a law? 5 Do governments have any motives in making laws? 6 What are four possible influences on a government when it is making a law? 7 What considerations are governments guided by in law-making? 8 What does common sense have to do with laws? 9 Why do some laws appear to differ from common sense? 10 What kind of institutions are governments? 11 Are the laws nationally oriented? Language focus A Translate the following expressions into Russian paying special attention to the past participle. 1 laws made by the governments 2 customs used by people 3 relations regulated by … 4 laws accepted by the society 5 laws enforced by the police and courts 6 crimes ignored by the police B Combine these three parts into sentences using the suitable modal verb.
C Put the verb into the correct form, present, future, past simple or present perfect. The fact that English law 1) _______(function) without major revolutions for upwards of nine hundred years is one of the great stabilizing factors of the English legal and political traditions. Of course there has been constant change throughout the centuries. But because change 2) _______(be) gradual most people 3) _______(feel) a sense of security in their personal and political lives. As time 4) ______(pass), however, it 5) ______(become) necessary to adopt rules governing the conduct of individuals toward one another. Certain laws were enacted. The purpose of law 6) ______(be) to bring some measure of order, of predictability into what would otherwise be the chaos of community living. It 7) ______ (give) protection to property. It 8) ______(ensure) that individuals’ rights are guaranteed by rules laid down in advance. Law is defined as any rule that society 9) _______(enforce). Law generally 10) ______(represent) the developing common morality of human beings. There 11) ______(be) a close relationship between law and morality. Law not only 12) ______(have) its origin in morality, but also is easier to enforce when citizens 13) ______ (yield) to government for moral reasons. Vocabulary tasks A The word AUTHORITY has the following meanings in Russian: 1 власть supreme authority – верховная власть 2 полномочие, право, права, компетенция to act on smb’s authority – действовать на основании полученных полномочий 3 pl. власти, начальство, администрация local authorities – местные власти, органы местного самоуправления 4 авторитет, вес, влияние to have authority with smb. – пользоваться авторитетом у кого-либо 5 авторитет, крупный специалист he is an authority on law – он является авторитетом в области права 6 авторитетный источник to quote one’s authorities – ссылаться на авторитетные источники Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.
B Find in the text the English equivalents for the following words and expressions. 1 норма 2 в пределах полномочий 3 публичные законы 4 обычаи 5 наказание 6 нарушать нормы поведения 7 обеспечивать соблюдение законов 8 гражданское право 9 отправление правосудия 10 эвтаназия 11 здравый смысл C Match the following legal terms with their Russian equivalents.
l (правовая) норма, правило D Introduction to law: basic terms. The following terms introduce you to the law and basic legal terminology. Below are the definitions. Find the definition for each term. authority court govern judge legal system lawyers legal action law enforcement agency legislation rule the judiciary 1 a body that is appointed to make a judgement or inquiry tribunal 2 a country’s body of judges __________ 3 an act or acts passed by a law-making body __________ 4 behaviour recognized by a community as binding or enforceable by authority __________ 5 legal proceedings __________ 6 an official body that has authority to try criminals, resolve disputes, or make other legal decisions __________ 7 an organization responsible for enforcing the law, especially the police __________ 8 a senior official in a court of law __________ 9 the body or system of rules recognized by a community that are enforceable by established process __________ 10 the control resulting from following a community’s system of rules __________ 11 members of the legal profession __________ 12 to rule a society and control the behaviour of its members __________ E Introduction to law: basic concepts. Complete the following text about basic legal concepts using the following words and phrases. Use each term once. authority court govern judges law enforcement agency lawyers legal action tribunal legislation rule the judiciary Why do we have laws and 1) legal systems ? At one level, laws can be seen as a type of 2) _______ which is meant to 3) ________behaviour between people. We can find these rules in nearly all social organizations, such as families and sports clubs. Law, the body of official rules and regulations, generally found in constitutions and 4) ________, is used to govern a society and to control the behaviour of its members. In modern societies, a body with 5) ________, such as a 6) ________ or the legislature, makes the law; and a 7) ________, such as the police, makes sure it is observed. In addition to enforcement, a body of expert 8) ________ is needed to apply the law. This is the role of 9) ________, the body of 10) ________ in a particular country. Of course, legal systems vary between countries, as well as the basis for bringing a case before a court or 11) ________. One thing, however, seems to be true all over the world – starting a 12) ________ is both expensive and time-consuming.  F Give Russian equivalents to the following word partnerships.Over to you “Mercy killing should not be punished”. Write a paragraph containing two points for and two against this statement. Then discuss your answer with other students. |
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