Е. В. Тихонова английский язык для самостоятельной работы студентов учебное пособие Омск

Notes

1. 
   abacus - счеты
   
2. 
   to keep track of numbers - удерживатьследчисел
   
3. 
   aframeofrodsstrungwithbeads - рамка из прутьев, на которые нанизаны
   

бусинки

4. 
   while calculating - привычислении
   
5. 
   positional notation for numerals - позиционнаясистемасчисленияцифр
   
6. 
   Justas ..., so ... - точно также как ..., так и ...
   
7. 
   astowhetherunits, ... werebeingcounted - относительно того, подсчитывались ли единицы, ...
   

8. 
   empty - пустой, свободный
   
9. 
   about 300 B.C. - около 300 года до нашей эры
   

10. A.D. - нашейэры

11. 
    cipher - шифр, шифровка
    
12. 
    geared counter wheels - зубчатыесчетныеколесики
    
13. 
    for nudging - длявыталкивания
    
14. 
    Noattentionwouldbeneeded - Никакого внимания не требовалось
    
15. 
    Countess - графиня
    
16. 
    troublesome - досадный, хлопотный
    

17. for analyzing alternating electrical circuits - дляанализаэлектрическихцепей
переменноготока

18. 
    laws for the behaviour of heavenly bodies - законыповедениянебесныхтел
    
19. 
    to take into account - приниматьвовнимание
    
20. 
    the bulge of the earth at the equator-выпуклостьземлинаэкваторе
    
21. 
    effect - влияние
    
22. 
    enormous - огромный, громадный
    

Text II.ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
“Artificial intelligence” is a metapforic figure of speech designating an entire scientific trend includes mathematicians, linguists, psychologists, engineers, and many other specialists. The essence (суть) of this trend is the intensification of man’s creative activities with the aid of computers.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is machine intelligence. It refers to applications of the computer which, in operation, resemble human intelligence. There are different categories of uses which all fall into the AI area. For example, robots or machines with sensory capabilities which detect and recognize sounds, pictures, etc., are one category. Another category is knowledge based systems, which contain a base of knowledge about a subject and can assist us in solving problems. Knowledge based systems being developed from the experience of human experts are called expert systems and can perform such tasks as medical diagnoses. AI will encompass (охватывать) many areas that have not been easily solved using traditional hardware and software.

AI will be incorporated into the 5th-generation computer systems. Then the average computer system should not require users to remember a lot of complex codes or commands. Rather, the user should ask: "Can you help me with this type of problem?" Themaster control program or operating system will be able to direct the user to the appropriate expert system through questions and answers.

AI programming is not magical; it does however imply a change in rules and methods for the traditional application programmer. Normal application programs follow a fixed algorithm: if this - do that. Given a set of input conditions, the output can be precisely determined. AI requires program design with more imagination. New methods of program organization and construction must be developed. AI programs may require the use of heuristic techniques,which are exploratory in nature and use trial and error methods. AI programs are often programmed in the LISP programming language, which allows the program designer to concentrate on the problem-solving logic more effectively than common languages like BASIC and COBOL.

It is impossible in principle to develop an artificial intelligence as it is sometimes understood literally (буквально), because the human brain is a very sophisticated system composed of tens of billions of interconnected cells. Each cell is extremely complex in itself. A rather probable hypothesis says that an individual cell processes the signals penetrating it like a computer. Therefore, even the most sophisticated machine we may imagine cannot even be compared to the brain. Man created the machine to fulfil his own requirements. A machine cannot have eitherhuman feelings, desires or emotions. Can anyone imagine a machine in love with someone? And what about the experience a person receives during his life in society through dealing all the time with purely human problems? A machine, in general, cannot think, cither logically or figuratively.

But nevertheless (темнеменее), the research trend of artificial intelligence will acquire ever greater importance as time goes because the programming and e technical means of artificial intelligence will ensure us of the opportunity to associate directly with the machine without the aid of a huge crowd of engineers, economists, biologists, chemists, and many other specialists. The question of AI acquires special importance for economic planning and management. In conditions when production is becoming automated, management must become automated as well.

One of the trends in AI now being intensively developed is to design so-called thinking robots, capable of a certain amount of independent activities.

The model of creative processes in computers gave birth to the term "artificial intelligence". But that doesn't mean that the computers possess it.The "intelligence" has been packaged in it an expert who developed the programme for solving some practical creative problem. Man differs from the machine in that he does not simply fulfil the programs stored in his memory, but also develops them himself, depending on the goals facing him.
Notes

1. 
   a metaphoric figure of speech - метафорическийобразречи
   
2. 
   sensorycapability - сенсорная способность (способность воспринимать)
   
3. 
   knowledge based systems - экспертныесистемы
   
4. 
   heuristictechniques - эвристические приемы (методы)
   
5. 
   trial and error method - методпроб и ошибок
   

TEXT I
Graphene
Graphene is a one-atom-thick planar sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice. It is the strongest known material. It can be viewed as an atomic-scale chicken wire made of carbon atoms and their bonds. The name comes from GRAPHITE + -ENE; graphite itself consists of many graphene sheets stacked together.
The carbon-carbon bond length in graphene is approximately 0.142 nm. Graphene is the basic structural element of all materials including graphite, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. It can also be considered as an infinitely large aromatic molecule, the limiting case of the family of flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons called graphenes. Nanomaterials is a field which takes a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology. It studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and especially those which have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions.Materials referred to as "nanomaterials" generally fall into two categories: fullerenes, and inorganic nanoparticles.
Fullerenes
The fullerenes are a class of allotropes of carbon which conceptually are graphene sheets rolled into tubes or spheres. These include the carbon nanotubes (or silicon nanotubes) which are of interest both because of their mechanical strength and also because of their electrical properties.
For the past decade, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes have been a hot topic in the field of research and development, and are likely to continue to be for a long time. In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use: binding specific antibiotics to the structure of resistant bacteria and even target certain types of cancer cells such as melanoma. The October 2005 issue of Chemistry and Biology contains an article describing the use of fullerenes as light-activated antimicrobial agents. In the field of nanotechnology, heat resistance and superconductivity are among the properties attracting intense research.

A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting carbon plasma arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated.

There are many calculations that have been done using ab-initio Quantum Methods applied to fullerenes. By DFT and TDDFT methods one can obtain IR, Raman and UV spectra. Results of such calculations can be compared with experimental results.
Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles or nanocrystals made of metals, semiconductors, or oxides are of particular interest for their mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical and other properties. Nanoparticles have been used as quantum dots and as chemical catalysts.

Nanoparticles are of great scientific interest as they are effectively a bridge between bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures. A bulk material should have constant physical properties regardless of its size, but at the nano-scale this is often not the case. Size-dependent properties are observed such as quantum confinement in semiconductor particles, surface plasmon resonance in some metal particles and superparamagnetism in magnetic materials.

Nanoparticles exhibit a number of special properties relative to bulk material. For example, the bending of bulk copper (wire, ribbon, etc.) occurs with movement of copper atoms/clusters at about the 50 nm scale. Copper nanoparticles smaller than 50 nm are considered super hard materials that do not exhibit the same malleability and ductility as bulk copper. The change in properties is not always desirable. Ferroelectric materials smaller than 10 nm can switch their magnetisation direction using room temperature thermal energy, thus making them useless for memory storage. Suspensions of nanoparticles are possible because the interaction of the particle surface with the solvent is strong enough to overcome differences in density, which usually result in a material either sinking or floating in a liquid. Nanoparticles often have unexpected visual properties because they are small enough to confine their electrons and produce quantum effects. For example gold nanoparticles appear deep red to black in solution.

The often very high surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles provides a tremendous driving force for diffusion, especially at elevated temperatures. Sintering is possible at lower temperatures and over shorter durations than for larger particles. This theoretically does not affect the density of the final product, though flow difficulties and the tendency of nanoparticles to agglomerate do complicate matters. The surface effects of nanoparticles also reduces the incipient melting temperature
Information on Abstracts
Аннотациясостоитизтрехчастей.

1. Справка к аннотации. В ней указываются следующие данные: автор; название работы на английском языке, перевод названия; количество страниц, таблиц, рисунков, ссылок на использованную литературу; на каком языке написана работа.

2. Основная часть должна отражать перечень наиболее характерных положений по содержанию работы.

3. Заключительная часть. В этой части должен быть общий вывод автора работы, а также рекомендации, для кого данная работа может представлять особый интерес.

К аннотациям как на русском, так и на английском языке предъявляются следующие требования.

1. Лаконичность языка, т.е. использование простых предложений (глаголы употребляются всегда в настоящем времени в действительном или страдательном залоге.Модальные глаголы, как правило, отсутствуют).

2. Строгая логическая структура текста аннотации.

3. Обязательное введение в текст аннотации безличных конструкций и отдельных слов, например: "сообщается...", "Подробно описывается...", "Кратко рассматривается...", "Излагаются...", "Комментируются..." и др., с помощью которых происходит введение и описание текста оригинала.

4. Недопущение повторений в заглавии и тексте аннотации.

5. Точность в передаче заглавия оригинала, отдельных формулировок и определений.

6. Использование общепринятых сокращений слов, таких как: напр., и т.д., и т.п., и др.

7. Единство терминов и обозначений.

Текст аннотации должен быть максимально кратким, от 500 до 1000 печатных знаков.
Основные штампы (key-patterns) аннотаций на английском и русском языках:

1. The article (рарег, book, etc.)deals with... 2. As the title implies the articledescribes... 3. It is specially noted... 4. A mention should be made... 5. It is spoken in detail... 6. ... are noted. 7. It is reported... 8. The text gives a valuable Information on ... 9.Much attention is given to ... 10. The article is of great help to.. 11. The article is of interest... 12. It (the article) gives a detailed analysis of... 13. It draws our attention to... 14. The difference between the terms ... and ... should be stressed. 15. It should be stressed (emphasized) that... 16. ... is proposed. 17. ... are examined 18. ... are discussed 19. An option permits... 20. The method proposed ... etc.

1. Эта статья (работа, книга и т.д.) касается... 2. Согласно названию, в статье описывается.. 3. Особенно отмечается... 4. Упоминается... 5. Подробно описывается... 6. Упоминается... 7. Сообщается... 8. Текст дает ценную информацию... 9. Большое внимание уделяется... 10. Эта статья окажет большую помощь... 11. Эта статья представляет интерес для... 12. Она (статья) дает детальный (подробный) анализ... 13. Она (статья, работа) привлекает наше внимание к ... 14. Следует подчеркнуть различие между терминами ... и ... 15. Следует подчеркнуть, что... 16. Предлагается... 17. Проверяются (рассматриваются...) 18. Обсуждаются... 19. Выбор позволяет... 20. Предлагаемый метод ... и т.д