Казанский государственный энергетический университет
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MUSIC EDUCATION AND KALOKAGATHIA IN THE GREEK ANTIQUITY Kalokagathia (καλοκαγαθία in ancient Greek) is the derived noun from the adjectives kalos k’agathos (καλὸς = beautiful, κἀγαθός = good or virtuous). The word was used by the ancient Greek writers and philosophers to describe the ideal of a person who combines physical strength and beauty along with a virtuous and noble character. It is the ideal of the personality that harmoniously pairs mind and body abilities and virtues, both in battle and in the activities of the everyday life. Its use is attested in many Greek writings (among them those of Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle), while the notion of kalokagathia imbued the moral thought in antiquity. Kalokagathia means both social and moral virtue. It defines the perfect (physically and morally) excellence of the men who are kaloi k’agathoi (καλοίκἀγαθοί) («beautiful» and «good» men). In Xenophon’s Oeconomicus, one of the Socratic Dialogues, Socrates has an enlightening conversation with Ischomachus, (a kalos k’agathos gentleman87 who serves as a moral model in the society), about the virtue of kalokagathia and how he practises it88. Apart from all the practical things the good and noble man did, another important act was that he transferred to his young and untutored wife his own principles by means of what could be considered at the time as a form of domestic «moral education» so that she could become good and noble after him89. Jaeger in Paideia I, argues that «that ideal (of the man who is kalos k’agathos) was inspired by a clear and delicate perception of correct and appropriate behaviour in every situation, which, despite its precise rules for speech and conduct and its perfect sense of proportion and control, was in effect a new spiritual freedom»90. The ancient Greek thinkers upheld that kalokagathia is the result of Paideia (education). According to Plato, the possession of Paideia is the criterion for real wealth and power, instead of the possession of material goods. The ancient Greeks, when referring to education, never meant it without the music positioned in its centre. In this paper I will try to demonstrate that there is this certain relationship between the notion of kalokagathia of the ancient Greeks and the music education in their educational system. Under this prism I will also argue that music education plays a particularly constructive role in the acquisition of kalokagathia. Plato, very much influenced by the Pythagorean theories on music, considering each person as a unified psychosomatic and spiritual entity, in the Republic declares that the combination of music education with the physical training of the body contributes to the equal development of the corporal and the spiritual elements of a person, therefore, the virtue of kalokagathia can be achieved in this way. Physical training makes body the best shelter for the spiritual part of the soul, while music cultivates the reasoning part of it. According to Plato and Aristotle91, music and body training are inseparable for the further development of the human character. Furthermore, music is a contributor to physical training as dancing is one of its main elements along with singing and instrument playing. Music for the Greeks is a lesson of the highest importance and value. It consists of three unified indivisible parts, harmoniously combined: the words with the poetic content, the musical melody or harmony and the rhythm. Harmony and rhythm mare subordinated to the word. The ancient Greek verse is simultaneously a linguistic and a music reality. The linkbetweenwordandmusic, theircommonelement, is the rhythm. The rhythm itself is contained in the words, in the poetic text, and the music structure is defined in an absolute way by the words of the verse. Music in ancient Greece was one of the most essential parts of everyday life and all citizens learned not only the basics in music theory but also how to play an instrument. Whereas music theory started developing during the archaic period, the development of the mathematics in the classical period offered music the framework within which its principles and theories were expressed and proved. Pythagoras, first of all the other philosophers, expressed the idea that the noted association between music and the soul should be put at the service of the upbringing of children and the molding and shaping of their character through melodies. He maintained that the physical, mental and spiritual condition of a person is very much influenced by music and that, beyond its other positive influence, music has therapeutic properties on the human soul. The Pythagoreans won the admiration of all as they had successfully managed to connect simple and definite small numbers, which are objective, with the subjective impression which people could adopt music and sounds with.The term harmonia (harmony), when used by Homer92, meant the carpenter’s clamp, while later it was defined by Philolaus as «a union of things that are much mixed» and also as «agreement among those who have been at odds in their thinking». The starting point of the musical theory of the Greek music and its connection with the soul is the Pythagorean assertion that the soul is a kind of harmony since harmony is «a blending and combining of opposites». This blending is identical with harmonia, the fundamental principle in the Greek musical theory. We must also take into consideration that the term harmonia is also used instead of the term music modes (τρόποι). The successions of the various musical intervals which form the various modes93 have to follow an order, a sequence, and different succession for each mode. The Greeks, philosophers or not, affected by the Pythagorean mathematical theory of music, thought very highly of the educational value of music and they established the theory of «the ethos of modes», in which they related various emotional and spiritual characteristics with the musical scales. They also believed that music itself had great impact on the soul and that it could shape soul and character as well. Music education contributes to the acquisition of the virtue of kalokagathia and is of great importance, for a man who wants to be good and noble in body and mind, to be musically educated. Democritus in the 5th c. BC speaks directly of music paideia94, so do Plato and Aristotle in the 4th c. During the archaic period there was not any formal music educational system; tuition of instruments could happen any time informally from a friend, a relative or any benevolent person who knew how to play at least an instrument, and they were organized in choruses that were expected, by the society, to sing and dance during festivals. In early Greece many different kinds of culture were developed in each city, therefore we can trace different ways of how music itself and music education were formed and used, while the ideal of kalokagathia just changes faces but it is always present. For example, the Cretans, who were very brave, fearless fighters, as part of the training of their young boys to become robust men and tough fighters, they were learning dances in armour and were singing paeans95, which were songs addressed initially to Apollo, the healer-god, but later, as they were associated with the battle and the winning of the god upon the terrifying monster-snake, Python, they became a symbol of bravery and of victorious battles. Sparta also, was the first musical capital of Greece, as pseudo-Plutarch in De musica testifies96, and music was positioned in the centre of the education. Sparta, although it remained a military orientated and conservative society, holds a special place in the history of the Greek education, and Greek culture generally. Music education has been more important there during the 7th and the early 6th c. BC than elsewhere in Greece then. The city flourished artistically and many musicians found artistic shelter and liberty in Sparta to produce masterpieces and become famous97. Education for both sexes was centred on the arts, with the male citizen population later receiving military education. Songs reflect the moral revolution that was developed due to the new tactical innovation of the «phalanx» in the battlefield. The moral ideal turned to be the devotion of each person to the prosperity and the good of the City-State instead of his own eudemonia. As Tyrtaeus bears witness in his songs: «It is a noble thing to be in the front of the battle and die bravely for one’s country». The Spartans achieved the acquisition of kalokagathia giving priority to the moral ideal of the bravery and the effectiveness in the battles, as warriors. Later, in the classical Athens of the 5th c. BC, the ideal of the man who is kalos k’agathos reached its pick and was greatly admired. Regarding music education in the City-State of Athens, where democracy was established, the music training was institutionalised. In Athens, as well as in Sparta and other City-States, music along with the letters and the training of the body are the three mandatory lessons to all children (male mostly) that are taught within the educational system of the first cycle of education. The boys are taught music by the teacher of music, the kitharistis, who teaches them to sing songs and how to play the lyre, and also to read and write at the beginning, along with the paidotrivis98. Later,the special teacher for letters, the grammatistis, applies on them further letter education while the music education is left exclusively to the kitharist. Everybody in Athens is engaged with music one way or another, on an amateur or professional basis. The Pythagorean doctrines combined with Damon’s99 theory of music, which declares that music produces motion in the soul, are the basis of Plato’s quest and thought regarding the power of music. Damon’s work was also focused on the social and political consequences of music, and he established the «theory of ethos»100. He is the first one who was interested in making a systematic research on the effects of different types of music on people's mood. According to Robert Wallace, it was Pericles' interest in using this research for controlling the people that led to Damon's ostracism. Arete (ἀρετή), translated as virtue, differs in its content from one period to the other or from one Greek thinker to the other but it has always been a central notion and main quest as they all, despite their differences, based their ethical thinking on the ideal of living life in an exemplary way101. The common Greek phrase of commendation «kalos k’agathos», was a phrase that expressed their admiration for the moral and aesthetic development and excellence of a man who combined both of them to a noble personality and character. This ideal has its origin in the Homeric tradition with the heroic morality of honour which educated the Greeks for centuries and impregnated ethics with the imitation of the hero and affected the moral thought. Although we refer to men, even since the Homeric tradition the term is not gender specific. We see virtuous and noble women who set the best example for all women in antiquity, as Penelope did. Later, especially in classical Athens, women are silently almost ignored until Plato sets new rules for them, as seen in the Republic, where women, the potential wives of the Guardians, are considered equal to men having the same access to education as men; therefore he considers that kalokagathia is the arete all men and women have as the ultimate objective. Key objectives in Plato’s educational system are the institutionalized public and common, for men and women, education along with the formation of a thriving spirit and body, in other words the moral reformation of the citizen whose virtues of justice, wisdom, valor and prudence would be strengthened inside him. Kalokagathia, apart from the moral nobility and stability of the character, is also associated with bravery and effectiveness and with physical health and wellness. Plato in the Laws argues that «the man who does not know how to sing and dance cannot be acknowledged as educated; on the contrary, the man who has been practised on music is very well educated»102. A big part of the Republic also is devoted to the quest of how music and therefore music education can affect the shaping of the soul and the character with a view to the eudemonia of the City. Plato’s «theory of Ideas» penetrated and characterized his quest even in his evaluation of art. This theory upholds the idea that reality, as the philosopher conceives it, is divided into two worlds: the world of ideas, of the true and the real, and the world of mimeses which are the things we are able to understand through our senses solely. He believed that art imitates and copies real life; therefore it copies the false things, the false world that exists around us, so art wards man off the truth and the real, not once only but twice, as it is the imitation of an imitation. This way, art deprives people from the truth, while the artists, being imitators of the truth, do not have the ability to understand or teach moral truths because the act of mimesis is a product of the non-rational part of the soul and distanced from truth also. Plato considered art and Music, the domain of the Muses in the widest sense, as dangerous for the people and the City. In order to control its influence, he tries to establish a new educational system and examines all the elements that form the ancient Greek music, the poems (word), the melodies and the rhythms. This way the kalos k’agathos man can be developed. Music can be dangerous, according to the philosopher, because its emotional appeal challenges the dominance of reason (logic) and it has the ability to stimulate the entire range of human emotions. To ensure that the Guardians of his ideal State are not swayed by excess emotion, Plato subjugates music to a music education put to the service of the control of the State and he intends to neutralize its influence by imposing strict criteria for the official acceptance of the poems, of the melodies and the rhythms. The music education and the physical training of the body are proper for the preparation of the men who form the class of the Guardians and combined they can lead men to the acquisition of virtue and effectiveness, both in mind and in body, therefore, people can meet the ideal of kalokagatghia under this kind of education. He excludes music which is sad or over-relaxing and he forbids music that does not express moderation and courage as these kinds of music make men effeminate and not efficient to face difficulties in real life. Music is useful only when it serves the purposes of the State by encouraging the citizens to be resolute to face difficulty and considerate in their relationships with the others. The philosopher does not exclude women from education; they are supposed to be martially trained so that they can defend their children, themselves and the city in case of war, while in times of peace they remain to their homes, musically educated so that they can run and preserve them in the best way praising the gods. The women should always be trained and prepared to become potential Guardians’ wives, therefore Guardians themselves103, so education should be the same for both men and women and that was a very innovative thought on behalf of the philosopher, in an era when women in general were confined in the house and were trained neither physically nor mentally. The philosopher tries to eradicate from the music education anything that does not have any religious or moral value and realizes that it is not only the content of the music works that exert influence on the soul but the form of them also and the means (instruments) which the music is transferred to people by. That leads him to restrict polyharmonic instruments as they have the ability to attribute all modes therefore the forbidden ones also and to discourage variationinrhythmstoo. One of the instruments that he excluded from the music education was the aulos104. «The aulos was a danger: it threatened self-control; it marred the aesthetics of the body; it introduced the allure of the alien. So often troped as the enemy and antithesis of logos, the aulos blocked the mouth, that most idealized of all the features of the citizen’s comportment, corporeal and political»105, Wilson testifies. Aristotle, in the Eudemian Ethics, claims that «kalokagathia is the only complete and comprehensive virtue as it encloses all virtues»106. Like every other virtue it is linked with human knowledge; knowledge resulting from education. As every citizen has the obligation, according to the philosopher, to be educated within the framework of the State, his virtue is directly dependent on culture and laws. He also, as Plato and others before him, had noted the importance of education on the young people, so in the Politics he thoroughly examines the educational system of the City-State, alleging as prerequisite the eudemonia of the State, reminding to its citizens that they do not belong to themselves but only to the City-State, so it is the State only that has the right and the legal responsibility to decide what its citizens should be taught. The objective of the State is the eudemonia of its citizens and no one can reach eudemonia without being virtuous. Therefore, education should be one and the same for all, and the State should be responsible for it, as its purpose is the good and the prosperity of the State as a whole; there is no separate or individual good that is not focused on the City’s eudemonia at the end. Virtue, according to the Stagirite, is essentially the result of the knowledge that derives from the repetitive dynamic of the ethos and the free will of the man while habit establishes virtue. Also, «arete is the middle-ratio between two extremes»107, and «…action develops the corresponding predisposition in a pre-existent potential; it does so through habituation, which becomes our nature»108, he teaches. In the Politics, music education, put in the centre of the educational system, is thoroughly examined by the philosopher and he comes to conclusions concerning the effect of music on the shaping of character and soul of the young people. Aristotle, despite the differences he had with the Pythagoreans and Plato, agrees with them that, even though music is not one of the practical things in life, its pedagogic value and role is great, as it entertains, rests and makes the free time pleasant. Seeking the necessity and importance of music, Aristotle finds it, at first, in its entertaining role, secondly in its contribution to a moral status, as music introduces us to the good and right pleasures while «music is also useful for generating virtue109 «and as its third objective he names the fact that it conduces to pleasure in life and to phronesis. These three aspects are connected with the three-parted discrimination of the soul, according to the philosopher. «Musical forms», Aristotle asserts, «provide a true copy of the forms of moral States, and this is the basis of the various moral influences exerted by the modes»110. Taking into account that in the rhythms and the melodies one can find mimesis of the whole spectrum of the human emotions and if he gets used to feeling sorrow or joy or any other sentiment under certain mimesis, he then is well trained to approach the appropriate feelings aroused by the real facts. Once the melodies are mimesis of ethos each one of them can shape the soul in a different way and this is the crucial point in the examination of the philosopher. Aristotle distinguished the modes into three types, the ethical, the practical and the enthusiastic111. According to the philosopher, the ethical modes act directly to the man’s ethos as a whole and affect his moral properties; therefore either they endow moral stability and serenity, like the Dorian mode does with its austere character, or they can destroy him, like the Mixolydian can do as it makes the soul grieve and cry of wistfulness. Ionian and Lydian modes are softer melodies and they bring relaxation and calmness to the soul, while with the barbaric Phrygian the soul gets excited. Corollary to this examination is the conclusion that only the Dorian is suitable for the education of the young people as it is the only one that reflects morality, seriousness and bravery, while simultaneously, the Dorian is the only mode that follows the Aristotelian criteria for the middle-ratio as it is in the middle of the extremes112. Thisway, heupholds, education achieves its three scopes, the measure, the possible and the proper, and creates kalous k’agathous citizens useful for the city that is led to eudemonia. The ancient Greeks believed that external beauty (κάλλος) was associated with the inner beauty, morality and virtue. Being kalos kagathos (beautiful externally and internally) was the highest ideal in ancient Greece. Music is addressed as a very important carrier of moral and pedagogical benefits, while music education contributes to the acquisition of the virtue of kalokagathia and is of great importance, as music influences body and mind and leads people to external and internal beauty. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. ANCIENT Aristoxenus,Complete Works, Harmonic elements, Kaktos publications, Athens 2005. Aristotle, EudemianEthics. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle, Politics. Homer, Odyssey. Plato, Laws. Plato, Republic. Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus. Plutarch, De musica. Xenophon, Oeconomicus. B. CONTEMPORARY Anderson Warren D., Ethos and education in Greek music: the evidence of poetry and philosophy, Harvard University Press, 1966. Diels Hermannand Kranz Walter (eds.), Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 8th edition, Berlin 1956, translation by Kathleen Freeman, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers, Oxford 1948. Jaeger Werner, Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture, volume I. Archaic Greece-The mind of Athens, translated from German by Gilbert Highet, Oxford University Press, New York 1945. Marrou Henri Irénée, A history of education in antiquity, University of Wisconsin Press, 1956. Pangle Thomas L., «Socrates in the Context of Xenophon’s Writings». In Paul A. Vander Waerdt (ed.), The Socratic Movement, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York 1994. Prior William J., Virtue and knowledge. An introduction to ancient Greek ethics, Clays Ltd., St. Ives plc 1991. Simpson Peter Phillips, A Philosophical Commentary on the Politics of Aristotle, The University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Tatarkiewicz Wladyslaw, History of Aesthetics, vol. 1, ed. by Jean Harrell,Continuum International Publishing Group, New York 2005. Wilson Peter, «The aulos in Athens». In Simon Goldhill & Robin Osborne (eds.), Performance Culture and Athenian Democracy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999 Winn Cyril and Jacks Maurice Leonard, Aristotle: His Thought and Its Relevance Today, Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press) Ltd., Bungay, Suffolk 1967. Афина Салаппа-Элиопулу |
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