Н. С. Кузнецова, Н. А. Шайдорова практикум по стилистике английского языка учебное пособие Великий Новгород

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Название	Н. С. Кузнецова, Н. А. Шайдорова практикум по стилистике английского языка учебное пособие Великий Новгород
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Тип	Учебное пособие

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This manual supplies students with materials illustrating the theoretical course of lectures in the English Language Stylistics. It strives to combine the principles of I.R. Galperin’s and I.V. Arnold’s approaches to stylistic analysis. This manual falls into four parts:

Guide to Stylistic Devices and Expressive Means with Exercises (abridged from the manual in practical stylistics by V.A. Kuharenko Seminars in Style)

Samples of stylistic analysis of poetry and prose

Illustrative material on functional styles

Extracts from the lecture on decoding stylistics by I.V. Arnold

After working through these parts, students will be able to start their independent stylistic analysis.

CHAPTER I

GUIDE TO STYLISTIC DEVICES
The main constituting feature of a stylistic device (SD) is the binary opposition of two meanings of the employed unit, one of which is normatively fixed in the language and does not depend upon the context, while the other one originates within certain context and is contextual.
It is possible to single out the following main groups of SD:
I. SD based on the binary opposition of lexical meanings regardless of the syntactical organization of the utterance - lexical stylistic devices.

II. SD based on the binary opposition of syntactical meanings regardless of their semantics - syntactical stylistic devices.

III. SD based on the binary opposition of lexical meanings accompanied by fixed syntactical organization of employed lexical units - lexico-syntactical stylistic devices.

IV. SD based on the opposition of meanings of phonological and/or graphical elements of the language - graphical and phonetical stylistic means.

When the opposition is clearly perceived and both indicated meanings are simultaneously realized within the same short context we speak of fresh, original, genuine SD.

When one of the meanings is suppressed by the other we speak of trite, or hackneyed SD.

When the second, contextual, meaning is completely blended with the first, initial one, we speak of the disappearance of SD and its replacement by polysemy or phraseology.

LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES
Lexical SD are further classified according to the nature of lexical meanings participating in their formation.
Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction between the Logical and Nominal Meanings of a Word
Antonomasia
Antonomasia is always trite when its contextual meaning is logical, because, to be employed as a common noun, the proper name must have fixed logical associations between the name itself and the qualities of its bearer which may occur only as a result of long and frequent usage.

The second type of antonomasia, as a rule, is original, for the variety of common nouns becoming contextual proper names is unlimited, and thus each case is a unique creation. The main function of this type of antonomasia - to characterize the person simultaneously with naming him - is vastly used in the so-called "speaking names" (Lady Teasle; Miss Sharp; Mr. Credulous, etc.).
Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction between Two Logical Meanings of a Word
(1) Various objects, phenomena, actions, etc., may possess similar features, which fact provides the possibility of transference of meaning on the basis of similarity and association, i.e. metaphor. When likeness is observed between inanimate objects and human qualities, we speak of personification. When a group of metaphors is clustered around the same image to make it more vivid and complete, we speak of a developed (sustained, prolonged) metaphor.

Metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. The most complete identification of the associated phenomena is achieved in verb-metaphors.

(2) Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects and is thus based on their contiguity. Since the types of relations between two objects can be finally limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy in most cases is trite (to earn one's bread; to live by the pen; to keep one's mouth shut, etc.). Most cases of original metonymy present relations between a part and the whole and are known as synecdoche.

Metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivized numerals. (She was a pale and fresh eighteen.)

(3) Irony is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings within the same context, which is sustained in oral speech by intonation. Irony can be realized also through the medium of the situation, which, in written speech, may extend as far as a paragraph, chapter or even the whole book. Bitter, socially or politically aimed irony is referred to as sarcasm.
Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction between the Logical and Emotive Meanings of a Word
(1) Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of some quantity, quality, size, etc., big though it might be even without exaggeration.

If it is smallness that is being hyperbolized (a woman of pocket size), we speak of understatement, which works on identical principles but in opposite directions with hyperbole proper.

(2) Epithet, the most explicitly subjective SD, structurally falls into: (a) word-epithets, i.e., epithets expressed by any notional part of speech in the attributive or adverbial function; (b) two-step epithets, i.e., epithets supplied by intensifiers (marvelously radiant smile); (c) syntactical epithets based on illogical syntactical relations between the modifier and the modified (the brute of a boy); (d) phrase-epithets, including into one epithet an extended phrase or a completed sentence (a you-know-how-dirty-men-are look); (e) sentence-epithets, expressed by a one-member (or one-word) sentence, which fulfils the function of emotive nomination (Fool!).

In the sentence epithets are distributed: (a) singly (a dry look); (b) in pairs (a wonderful and happy summer); (c) in strings (a ribald, thundering, insolent, magnificent laugh).

Semantic classification of epithets allows to differentiate among them metaphorical epithet, which are based on metaphor (the iron hate) and transferred ones, which transfer the quality of one object upon its nearest neighbour (tobacco-stained smile) thus characterizing both of them.

(3) Oxymoron joins two antonymous words into one syntagm, most frequently attributive (adoring hatred) or adverbial (shouted silently), less frequently of other patterns (doomed to liberty), etc.

Trite oxymorons (pretty lousily, awfully nice and others) have lost their semantic discrepancy and are used in oral speech and fiction dialogue as indicators of roused emotions.

In the treatment of both above-discussed groups the attention must be focused on the context and its role in the conversion of genuine SD into trite and dead ones as well as on the structural and semantic peculiarities and types of them.
Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction

between the Free and Phraseological Meanings

of a Word

(or between the Meanings of Two Homonyms)
The main stylistic function of the indicated SD is to create humorous effect. Proceeding from the quality of the context and the structure of the SD we shall differentiate:

(1) Zeugma - the context allows to realize two meanings of the same polysemantic word (or a pair of homonyms) without the repetition of the word itself.

(2) Pun - the role of the context is similar to that of zeugma, while the structure is changed, for the central word is repeated.

(3) Semantically false chain - extended context prepares the reader for the realization of a word in one contextual meaning when unexpectedly appears a semantically alien element forcing the second contextual meaning upon the central word. As it is seen from the denomination of the SD, structurally it presents a chain of homogeneous members belonging to non-relating semantic fields but linked to the same kernel, which due to them is realized in two of its meanings simultaneously.

(4) Violation of phraseological units - occurs when the bound phraseological meanings of the components of the unit are disregarded and intentionally replaced by their original literal meanings.

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