Методическое обеспечение самостоятельной работы студентов по дисциплинам кафедры «иностранные языки»

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Название	Методическое обеспечение самостоятельной работы студентов по дисциплинам кафедры «иностранные языки»
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Тип	Учебное пособие

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Orient Express) justified their description as “hotels on wheels”.

As the century ended, railways were driven by their passengers’ enthusiasm for travel to begin significant improvement in the comfort and speed of their ordinary trains, in all classes of accommodation.
Задание 6. Ответьте письменно на вопросы согласно тексту.

What is George Pullman famous for?
Why are European international trains called “hotels on wheels”?

Контрольная работа № 3
Для того, чтобы правильно выполнить работу, необходимо повторить следующий материал по грамматике английского языка:

Многозначность слов “it”, “one”.
Инфинитив и его формы. Сочетание модальных глаголов с перфектным инфинитивом.
Объектный инфинитивный оборот.
Субъектный инфинитивный оборот.

Вариант 1
Задание 1. Перепишите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на значения слов “it”, “one” и переведите предложения на русский язык.

To locate target on the surface of the sea or on the ground, it is necessary to determine not only in which direction it lies, but also how far way it is.
One watt is the power due to a current of one ampere at tension of one volt; therefore watts equal volts times amperes.
A new science, radio astronomy emerged it is very closely allied to astronomy, astrophysics and physics.

Задание 2. Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя пассивный залог. Переведите полученные предложения.

We must purify the solution.
Other factors may affect the process.
These organelles may accumulate energy.
They must have underestimated the result.
They should have included other works in the review.

Задание 3. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на сочетание модальных глаголов с перфектным инфинитивом.

Your assistants must have brought the journal you wanted to look through.
This student is late, he may have missed the train.
It must have been known for centuries that a colored glass is cooler at the bottom of a pot than a colorless glass.
Jonson’s data published in 2002 could have been used in our work but they lacked precision.

Задание 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на объектный инфинитивный оборот.

Unfortunately everyone knew him to have done it on purpose.
The engineers consider this device to be the simplest and oldest type of accelerator.
We thought these superconductive materials to be produced in China.

Задание 5. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на субъектный инфинитивный оборот.

Electronics is thought to be a young science.
The electric generator is known to be a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Alpha rays are considered to be positively charged helium atom.
Shakespeare is known to have been an actor and playwright in one of the leading companies of players at the end of 1580.

Задание 6. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
TRAINS

A train is a connected series of rail vehicles that move along the track. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate locomotive or from individual motors in selfpropelled multiple units. Most trains carry a revenue load, although non-revenue cars exist for the railway’s own use, such as for maintenance-of-way purposes. The railroad engineer or engine driver controls the locomotive or other power cars, although people movers and some rapid transits are driverless.

Traditionally, trains are pulled using a locomotive. This involved a single or a multiple powered vehicles being located at the front of the train and providing sufficient adhesion to haul the weight of the full train. This remains dominant for freight trains, and is often used for passenger trains. A push-pull train has the end passenger car equipped with a driver’s cab so the engineer can remote control the locomotive. This allows one of the locomotive hauled trains drawbacks to be removed, since the locomotive need not be moved to the end of the train each time the train changes direction. A railroad car is a vehicle used for haulage of either passengers or freight.

A multiple unit has powered wheels throughout the whole train. This is used for rapid transit and tram systems, as well as many both short- and long-haul passenger trains. A railcar is a single, self-powered car. Multiple units have a driver’s cab at each end of the unit, and were developed following the ability to build electric motors and engines small enough to build under the coach. There are only a few freight multiple units, most of which are high-speed post trains.
Задание 7. Составьте пять вопросов к тексту.
Вариант 2
Задание 1. Перепишите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на значения слов “it”, “one” и переведите предложения на русский язык.

There are no new radio techniques for investigating comets directly, but their close relation to meteors makes it desirable to describe their main features.
When one talks over a telephone, it is not the sound of the voice that travels over the wire, it is an electric current.
It does not mean that in all the applications of induction heating only the surface of the body is heated.

We must dilute the acid.
Ultraviolet radiation may produce ionization.
We can control the process.
They must have overlooked their possibility.
They could have estimated this contribution more precisely.

Your friend must have forgotten your promise.
To get better results another method ought to have been applied.
They said that the first telescope can have been invented by a Dutch worker.
The magnetized body may have exerted some attractive or respulsive force on the other one.

Задание 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на объектный инфинитивный оборот.

This is quite the wrong view to take.
He considers this device to be made on semiconductors.
The engineers wanted this phenomenon to be investigated in their laboratory.

Задание 5. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на субъектный инфинитивный оборот.

An electric cell is believed to consist of an electrolyte and two electrodes.
This voltage source was supposed to supply current for this circuit.
Due to these experiments this substance was shown to be a good conductor.
It appeared to be quite another man.

Задание 6. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
MOTIVE POWER

Steam locomotives are locomotives with a steam engine that provides adhesion. Coal, petroleum, or wood is burned in a firebox. The heat warms up water in the fire-tube boiler to create pressurized steam. The steam travels through the smoke box before leaving via the chimney. In the process it powers a piston that transmits power directly through a connecting rod and a crankrip on the driving wheel or to a crank on a driving axle. Steam locomotives have been phased out in most parts of the world for economical and safety reasons.

Electric locomotives draw power from a stationary source via overhead wire or a third rail. Some also or instead use a battery. A transformer in the locomotive converts the high voltage, low current power to low voltage, high current used in the electric motors that power the wheels. Modern locomotives use three-phase alternating current induction motors. Electric locomotives are the most powerful traction. They are also the cheapest to run and provide les noise and no local air pollution. However, they require high capital investments both for the catenary and the supporting infrastructure. Accordingly, electric traction is used on urban systems, lines with high traffic and for high-speed rail.

Diesel locomotives use a diesel engine as the prime mover. The energy transmission may be either diesel-electric, diesel-mechanical or diesel hydraulic, but diesel-electric is dominant. Electro-diesel locomotives are built to run as diesel-electric on unelectrified sections and as an electric locomotive on electrified sections.

Alternative methods of motive power include magnetic levitation, horse-drawn, cable, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbine.
Задание 7. Составьте пять вопросов к тексту.
Вариант 3
Задание 1. Перепишите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на значения слов “it”, “one” и переведите предложения на русский язык.

It is the gas turbine engine, which has been responsible for the revolution in aircraft.
The sailors found it difficult to wash off this ash and soon they were suffering from the first symptoms of radiation sickness.
When put together in a molecule, these tiny fragments do not form a rigid structure, but one that can vibrate, rotate and perform other relative motions about its center of mass.

This mechanism may involve an unknown factor.
We must regulate the temperature conditions.
The structural changes can produce a marked effect.
They may have disregarded smaller defects.
They might have neglected smaller errors.

These students must have written their prices already.
The operator should have test the trouble caused due to the overheated conductor.
You could not have seen him there because he left the place two months ago.
These important results might have been easily overlooked, as they were published in a popular scientific journal.

Задание 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на объектный инфинитивный оборот.

Scientists expect microminiaturization to be widely used in future.
Every student knows two kinds of electric charges to exist.
This is my purpose in this paper to describe all the parts of this engine in detail for you to understand what a complicated mechanism it is.

Задание 5. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на субъектный инфинитивный оборот.

The value of the output voltage of the cell was found to depend only on the material used.
The secondary coil of the transformer is assumed to have more turns than the primary one.
Cadmium was reported to be useful application in transistor.
He is said to have been met by a man who led him to the place his friend where expecting him at.

Задание 6. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
PASSENGER TRAINS

A passenger train travels between stations where passengers may embark and disembark. The oversight of the train is the duty of a conductor. Passenger trains are part of public transport, often make up the stem of the service, with buses feeding to stations.

Intercity trains are long-haul trains that operate with few stops between cities. Trains typically have amenities such as a dining car. Some lines also provide over-night services with sleeping cars. Some long-haul trains have a specific name. Regional trains are medium distance trains that connect cities with outlying, surrounding areas, or provide a regional service. Airport rail links quick access from city centres to airports.

Rapid transit is built in large cities and has the highest capacity of any passenger transport system. It is grade separated and commonly built underground or elevated. At street level, smaller trams can be used. Light rails are upgraded trams that have step-free access, their own way and sometimes sections underground. Monorail systems operate as elevated, medium capacity systems. A people mover is a driverless, grade-separated train that serves only a few stations, of as a shuttle.

High-speed rail operate at much higher speeds than conventional railways, the limit being regarded at 200 to 320 km/h. High-speed trains are used mostly for long-haul service, and most systems are in Western Europe and East Asia. The speed record is 574.8 km/h, set by a modified French Magnetic levitation trains such as the Shanghai airport train use under-riding magnets which attract themselves upward towards the underside of a guideway, and this line has achieved somewhat higher peak speeds in day-to-day operation than conventional high-speed railways, although only over short distances.
Задание 7. Составьте пять вопросов к тексту.

Вариант 4
Задание 1. Перепишите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на значения слов “it”, “one” и переведите предложения на русский язык.

From this experiment it is clear that these devices are low power ones.
One would like to know, for example, that the effect of the ambient atmosphere is on the slow-state density and energy distribution.
It is very easy to receive a fatal chock when working on the transmitter final stage, particularly when neutralizing it.

This defect may account for the discrepancy in the results.
We must subject the material to special treatment.
The environmental conditions can bring about such changes.
They may have postponed the further work.
They must have overestimated the potentialities of this technique.

The experiment must have been done in a wrong way because the obtained data are in contradiction with Lenz’s law.
There are so many mistakes in your exercises! You should have been more attentive.
He cannot have entrusted this scientific work to a man he has known for such a short period of time.
These events might not have been detected much earlier for the lack of precise documents.

Задание 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на объектный инфинитивный оборот.

They supposed the greater part of energy to be used for supplying plants in that region.
We know scientists to study this problem.
Maxwell found the speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves to be equal to the ratio of electromagnetiс to the electrostatic of charge.

Задание 5. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на субъектный инфинитивный оборот.

This scientist is expected to make report on the fundamentals of radio engineering.
The designer is said to construct a new device by using semiconductors.
The antenna was found to receive only a small part of energy radiated by the transmitter.
The years that he had spent abroad seemed to have taught him much.

Задание 6. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
A BRITISH STEAM LOCOMOTIVE-HAULED TRAIN

The development of the steam engine spurred ideas for mobile steam locomotives that could haul trains on tracks. The first patented by James Watt in 1794. In 1804, Richard Trevithick demonstrated the first locomotive-hauled train. Accompanied with Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success, breaking some of the brittle cast-iron plates. Two years later, the first passenger horse-drawn railway was opened nearby between Swansea and Mumbles. In 1825 George Stephenson built the locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which was the first public railway in the world. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhil Trials. This success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. In 1830, the first intercity railway, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened. The gauge was that used for the early wagonways, and had been adopted for the Stockton and Darlington Railway.

The 1,435 mm width became known as the international standard gauge, used by about 60% of the world’s railways. This spurred the spread of rail transport outside the UK. The Baltimore and Ohio that opened in 1830 was the first to evolve from a single line to a network in the United States. In 1867, the first elevated railway was built in New York. The symbolically-important first transcontinental railway was completed in 1869.
Задание 7. Составьте пять вопросов к тексту.
Вариант 5
Задание 1. Перепишите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на значения слов “it”, “one” и переведите предложения на русский язык.

It is well known that radioactive isotopes can be used very effectively in medicine for the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases.
One of the most important things for the pilot to know how high he is flying.
One should know that geometry treats of the properties, construction, and measurements of lines, surfaces and solids.

We must slow this reaction.
This radiation dose can damage the cells.
These conditions may affect the course of the reaction.
They could have reorganized the physics department long ago.
They must have violated the conservation law.

That post-graduate may have passed the exam on his speciality.
The stone, which drew iron to it, must have been magnetized.
The definition of this event suggested by Smith lacked clarity; otherwise it could have been taken for general use.
This work might not have been completed for the support and encouragement of colleagues.

Задание 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на объектный инфинитивный оборот.

We consider nuclear energy to be the prime source of heat energy.
The designers assume the system operation to be improved as a result of replacing some of its parts.
The teacher expected him to make this experiment successfully.

Задание 5. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на субъектный инфинитивный оборот.

Atomic nuclei are believed to be composed of protons and neutrons.
Yablochkov is known to be the inventor of the electric candle.
All the members of the committee are reported to have been enthusiastic about the plan.
Substances are known to burn when they unite with the oxygen of the air.

Задание 6. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
FREIGHT TRAINS

A freight train hauls cargo using freight cars specialized for the type of goods. Freight trains can be very efficient, with economy of scale and high energy efficiency. However, their use is reduced by lack of flexibility, often by the need of transshipment at both ends of the trip due to lack of tracks to the points of pick-up and delivery. Authorities often encourage the use of cargo rail transport due to its environmental profile.

Container trains have become the dominant type in the US for non-bulk haulage. Containers can easily be transshipped to other models, such as ships and trucks, using cranes. This has succeeded the boxcar (wagonload), where the cargo had to be loaded and unloaded into the train manually. In Europe the sliding wall wagon has largely superseded the ordinary covered wagons. Other types of cars include refrigerator cars, stock cars for livestock and auto racks for road vehicles. When rail is combined with road transport, a roadrailer will allow semi-trailers to be driven onto the train, allowing for easy transition between road and rail.

Bulk handling represents a key advantage for rail transport. Low oven zero transshipment costs combined with energy efficiency and low inventory costs allow trains to handle bulk much cheaper than by road. Typical bulk cargo includes coal, ore, grains and liquids. Bulk is transported in open-topped cars and tank cars.
Задание 7. Составьте пять вопросов к тексту.
Контрольная работа № 4
Для того, чтобы правильно выполнить контрольную работу № 4, необходимо повторить следующий материал по грамматике английского языка:

Причастие и его формы, его синтаксические функции в предложении.
Независимый причастный оборот.
Герундий и его формы. Синтаксические функции герундия в предложении.

Вариант 1
Задание 1. Определите форму причастия в следующих предложениях и переведите их на русский язык.

Leaving a transmitting antenna, a radio wave travels in all directions.
Being heated magnetized steel loses its magnetism.
Having lost the address of her cousin’s new flat, she couldn’t come to see her.
The dimensions of the body referred to in that textbook will be used in our experiment.
Placed in different surrounding medium the device operates differently.

Задание 2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на независимый причастный оборот.

Electrons moving through the conductor, electrical energy is generated.
There being no traffic, the driver can maintain a constant speed of 90 km/h.
The fundamental of electricity are the fundamentals of electronics, both being branches of physics.
The travelled distance having been given in meters and the time in seconds, speed was measured in m.p.s., that is, in meters per second.

Задание 3. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на различные формы герундия.

Increasing the number of power stations in our country means the improving living standards of people.
We know of the electric furnace being an ideal melting and refining unit for the steel industry.
He objected to the goods being paid in advance.
By raising the cathode temperature we increase the number of emitted electrons.
The chain reaction releases great quantities of x-radiation and neutrons, which must be prevented from escaping into the atmosphere.

Задание 4. Определите, к какой части речи относятся выделенные слова: причастие, герундий или отглагольное существительное. Определите их функцию в предложении и переведите предложения на русский язык.

When translated the article was typed.
At the continued heating of a solid body the movement of its molecules becomes still faster.
The results obtained being of prime importance, engineers used them in their investigations.
The specific heat solid elements known, the approximate atomic weight can be easily calculated.

Задание 5. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
A LOCOMOTIVE

A locomotive is a railway vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. The word originates from the Latin loco – “from a place”, ablative of locks, “place” + Medieval Latin motivus, “causing motion”, and is shortened form of the term locomotive engine, first used in the early 19^th century to distinguish between mobile and stationary steam engines.

A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its sole purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles. These are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple-units, motor coaches and railcars. The use of these self-propelled vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains, but very rare for freight. Vehicles which provide motive power to haul an unpowered train, but are not generally considered locomotives because they have payload space or are rarely detached from their trains, are known as power cars.

Traditionally, locomotives pull trains from the front. Increasingly common is push-pull operation, where a locomotive pulls the train in one direction and pushes it in the other, and is optionally controlled from a control cab at the opposite end of the train.

Locomotives may generate their power from fuel (wood, coal, petroleum or natural gas), or they take power from an outside source of electricity. It is common to classify locomotives by their source of energy. The common ones include: steam locomotives, diesel locomotives, electric locomotives and hybrid locomotives.

Вариант 2
Задание 1. Определите форму причастия в следующих предложениях и переведите их на русский язык.

The antenna receives only a small part of energy radiated by the transmitter.
The site having been chosen, many houses are being built there.
Part of signal travelling along the ground is called the ground wave.
The generation of electricity from magnetism dealt with by Faraday was a very important scientific discovery.
Being equipped with modern instruments the laboratory carried out important experiments.

Задание 2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на независимый причастный оборот.

The speed of light very great, we cannot measure it by ordinary methods.
Part of energy being changed into heat, is transformed into electrical energy.
The size of the electrodes being increased, the current capacity also increases, the voltage output remaining the same.
Thermostats are very sensitive to light, this property being very important.

Задание 3. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на различные формы герундия.

Testing a new receiver for the application in the system was the prime task of the laboratory.
After investigating many materials engineers selected aluminum for constructing this device.
I remember you having objected to the schedule.
Charging by induction will be discussed in the next article.
We know of all the substances consisting of atoms.

Задание 4. Определите, к какой части речи относятся выделенные слова: причастие, герундий или отглагольное существительное. Определите их функцию в предложении и переведите предложения на русский язык.

The results obtained were of great importance.
While compressing the gas we can turn it into liquid.
The new building housing the laboratory will be located at some distance from the main building of the plant.
This splitting of the hydrogen molecule is attended by the absorption of a large amount of energy.

Задание 5. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

There are many reasons why the motive power for trains has been traditionally isolated in a locomotive, rather than in self-propelled vehicles.

Should the locomotive fail, it is easy to replace it with another. Failure of the motive power unit does not require taking the entire train out of service. Idle trains waste costly motive power resources. Separate locomotives enable costly motive power assets to be moved around as needed. Large locomotives can be substituted for small locomotives where the grades are steeper and more power is needed. Separating the motive power from payload-hauling cars enables one to be replaced without affecting the other. At times locomotives have become obsolete when their cars were not, and vice versa.

There are several advantages of multiple-unit trains compared to locomotives. Multiple-units are more energy efficient than locomotive-hauled trains and more nimble, especially on grades, as much more of the train’s weight is placed on driven wheels, rather than suffer the dead weight of unpowered coaches.

Many multiple-unit trains have cabs at both ends or arranged so that a set of cars has cabs at both ends, so that the train may be reversed without uncoupling/re-coupling the locomotive, giving quicker turnaround times, reducing crew costs, and enhancing safety. Multiple units normally have completely independent braking system on all cars, meaning the failure of the brakes on one car does not prevent the brakes throughout the train from operating safely.

Вариант 3
Задание 1. Определите форму причастия в следующих предложениях и переведите их на русский язык.

Without using superconducting materials it was impossible to perfect this system operation.
He got a Capitol Hill having changed a tram for a bus.
The new measuring instrument being developed in this laboratory will be tested by that engineer.
Gagarin’s first space flight followed by many others was very important for the development astronautics.
When heated, magnetized steel will lose its magnetism.

Задание 2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на независимый причастный оборот.

Transistors being very sensitive to light, engineers use this property.
The current distribution over the cross section of the conductor being non-uniform, the resistance increases.
The condenser being placed in a direct currents circuit, the current will stop flowing.
The fastest way to detect an artificial satellite is radio, largely used for that purpose.

Задание 3. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на различные формы герундия.

The new means of improving radio communication has been discovered by our engineers.
Radiation is usually detected by measuring the amount of ionization.
We knew of glass having been invented some hundreds years ago.
He entered the room without noticing her.
In making Bessemer steel, molten iron direct from the blast furnace is poured into the converter.

We are proud of being students.
The breaking of the circuit causes the magnetic field to disappear.
Obtaining new data on the device sensitivity will be of great help for designers.
There are several types of microphones being used, the most important of these being the dynamic microphone, the velocity microphone and the crystal microphone.

Задание 5. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
FREIGHT CARS

Railroad freight cars, also known as rolling stock, first were used in quarries and coal mines as early as the 1820s. The very first freight car designs were simple planks on axles or the standard flatcar and covered gondolas (a shorter version in height of a boxcar). These first freight cars were used to carry almost all types of merchandise the railroads handled accept coal and other bulk loads which used “jimmies,” or the predecessor of today’s common open-top hopper cars.

As the railroads began to show their superior advantage to horses and canals in being able to haul large amounts of freight in any type of weather, it quickly became the preferred mode of transportation by the mid-19th century. As demand grew so did the need for more specialized car types and better construction of them. Early railroad cars were simple things, usually with only one axle attached rigidly to each end of the car. As demand grew it quickly became clear that better designs were needed as these single axle, simple designed cars were very impractical when used to haul heavier and heavier loads. The single-axle cars would bend around curves and by the axles being rigidly mounted to the car’s frame, there was no cushion for the freight, which was often damaged by the time it arrived at its destination.

In any event, the major milestone in railroad freight car development was the switch from wood to steel in construction, which began to appear in cars in the late 19th century, mostly in areas of structural integrity such as sills and trusses. Even though all-steel cars became favored by the early 20th century, those made of wood remained in use as late as the 1960s until their age forced them into retirement.

Вариант 4
Задание 1. Определите форму причастия в следующих предложениях и переведите их на русский язык.

When produced in one tube, minimum grid voltage is produced in the other tube.
The transmitter operating on the low frequencies was constructed by these students.
The site of the city was chosen by G. Washington and was accepted by Congress in the act of 1790, establishing the Federal district of Columbia.
New data being obtained are necessary for nature investigations.
Negatively charged ions are attracted to the anode, positively charged ions are attracted to the cathode.

Задание 2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на независимый причастный оборот.

Some radioactive materials have been found in nature, uranium being one of them.
Chemistry and physics are interconnected sciences, any chemical change resulting in a physical change.
The velocity, length and frequency of the wave are independent of each other, the frequency being equal to the velocity divided by the wavelength.
The cyclotron may be regarded as a modification of the linear accelerator, the particles being transferred from one to the other at the proper instants by the action of a magnetic field.

Задание 3. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на различные формы герундия.

Iron and zinc plates are used for producing negative electrodes since these materials produce a high charge.
He remembered once having read that at a very low temperature some metals become superconducting, having practically minimum specific resistance.
He insisted on the question being reconsidered.
The explanation lies in the product being more stable.
Nothing could prevent Maria Curie from changing her course.

Being built on the basis of transistors lasers are successfully used in technology.
The energy of the body is its capacity for doing work.
We know that the conversion of heat into chemical energy is reversed when the burning of coal converts chemical energy into heat.
The charge of the electron being determined, it was easy to calculate its mass.

Задание 5. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
BOXCARS

Railroad boxcars are perhaps not only the best-recognized freight car to operate of all time but also one of the most identifiable symbols of the railroad industry itself. This is partly due to the fact that through the 1960s the boxcar was used to haul about any and every type of non-bulk traffic (like coal, aggregates, chemicals, etc.). This in itself, the fact that many cargoes must be transported out of the weather en route to its destination, is what spurred the development of the boxcar.

For the first years of the railroad industry freight was hauled on simple flatcars or early gondolas, which were essentially flatcars with short sides to keep the lading from rolling or falling off in transit (or in the case of bulk materials, to keep them confined). The early 1930s is when the true boxcar came to life (originally known as “house” cars), with one of its founders the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad (a very early subsidiary of the New York Central). By the latter part of that decade this new style of car was beginning to catch on across the rest of the industry as its versatility and value began to be realized.

What made boxcars great, at least in the eyes of the railroads, was, their ability to haul about anything! Railroads thrive on redundancy to maximize efficiency which was the reason they loved the boxcar so much (if it was not for shippers who requested many different specialized cars for their needs, railroads would have been happy to haul everything in boxcars). For instance, for many years the car carried everything from automobiles and paper to car parts and fresh produce, literally almost anything that would practically fit into the car’s empty, open spaces.
Вариант 5
Задание 1. Определите форму причастия в следующих предложениях и переведите их на русский язык.

If arranged according to the atomic weights, elements show the periodicity of their properties.
Being perfected the device operated successfully under all conditions.
Building a network of transmitting stations in that region was of prime importance.
The work of Rutherford followed by great help for understanding many natural phenomena.
Some drawbacks of the reactor referred to in this article will be eliminated.

Задание 2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на независимый причастный оборот.

The resistance of the body being high, small current flows through the body.
Two bodies having potentials of 100 volts and 50 volts, a potential difference exists between them of 50 volts.
A charge of one coulomb increasing the potential between plates by one volt, a capacitor had a capacity of one farad.
The value of voltage was the same in all the elements of a parallel circuit, the value of current being different.

Задание 3. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на различные формы герундия.

Important results on the ionization were obtained by measuring those particles.
The transistors are successfully used for transforming heat energy into electrical energy by means of thermal elements.
Every student knows of copper being one of the first metals used by man.
He improved the report by changing the end.
In spite of its having been compressed, the gas returns to its original volume as soon as the applied force removed.

Inductance is successfully provided with the silver coating and capacitance by the inner and outer surface of this silver with the porcelain as dielectric.
He went away without waiting for reply.
The main advantage of this instrument over the moving coil type instrument is that it is capable of measuring both alternating current and direct current.
This article is worth reading.

Задание 5. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.
TANK CARS

Tank cars have become more prolific and diversified in recent years hauling increasing types of materials such as food-based products, petrochemicals, and ethanol. However, at one time this was not the case and in many ways the tank car is "specialty" freight car, meaning that its creation came about to haul a specific commodity or commodity type.

While the perception has started to change in recent times for many years, even through the latter half of the 20th century, railroads have been quite stubborn about accepting new technologies or any change at all for that matter. So, when new oil companies began to spring up after oil reserves were discovered in the 1860s railroads were, not surprisingly, hostile to developing a new type of car to haul the commodity.

Prior to the 1870s the first true tank car began to take shape, transitioning from an early vertical vat-on-flat-car design to a horizontal iron tank which was mounted to a traditional flat car, very roughly similar to what is commonly used today. This new design allowed for much more of a commodity type to be shipped via one car and quickly became widely used, especially to haul crude oil. As the 20th century progressed the car was constructed of better materials. For instance, with the development of steel and welded seams the car was much stronger and thus could be built larger to haul much heavier loads. Also during the 20th century many more commodity types became available from eatable liquids to various oil products, which required differing types of tank cars to be built (such as those with interior glass-linings to accommodate edible commodities and chemicals). Over the last half-century or so the tank car's overall design has not changed significantly, with any alterations within the general design itself to accommodate various commodities (such as differing positions of the dome, walkways, and pressurized/non-pressurized railroad cars).

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